At least nine Korean masters trained in Japan: Yong-Shul Choi, Geka Yung, Hyung-Ju Cho, Won-Kuk Lee, Pyong-Chik Ro, Hong-Hi Choi, Yong-i Choi, Ki-Whang Kim, and Pyung-In Yun. Yong-Shul Choi claims to have trained for many years in Daito-ryu Aikijutsu under Sokaku Takeda, although his claims are not recognized by the followers of Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido. Choi later returned to Korea and taught Yusul (Jujutsu), which one of his students, Ji-Han Jae, later called Hapkido ("coordinated energy way"). The other eight Koreans trained in Karate-do. Geka Yung was the head instructor of the Kanbukan ("Korean martial arts hall") in Japan, which was later renamed the Renbukan ("training martial arts hall") under Norio Nakamura. Hyung-Ju Cho moved to Japan, changed his name to Neichu So, and trained in Goju-ryu Karate-do under Chojun Miyagi in high school, becoming a karate-do instructor in 1939. According to Hancock, Won-Kuk Lee learned Shotokan karate-do while attending school in Japan. Pyong-Chik Ro studied at a Japanese university during the Second World War, during which time he also studied under Gichin Funakoshi and earned his first dan (black belt rank) in Karate-do before returning to Korea in 1944. Hong-Hi Choi and Yong-i Choi both went to Japan in the late 1930s and later became famous martial art masters (see chapter 11). Ki-Whang Kim began Judo in 1931 and earned his first dan from the Kodokan five years later. He went on to study Karate-do at Nihon University in Tokyo, where he captained the team and was nicknamed "typhoon." He later spent two years "studying Kempo and kung-fu in China," probably as one of the draftees of the Japanese Army. Pyung-In Yun was raised in Manchuria and studied quan-fa there before also attending college at Nihon University. He trained there with one of the faculty members, Kanken Toyama (1888-1966), who also happened to be the founder of Shudokan Karate-do. Before Yun returned to Korea, Toyama recognized him as a fourth dan in his style.

Ki-Whang Kim (1920-1993) was able to begin Judo in Korea in 1931, despite the Japanese ban. Eventually the underground nature of the martial arts in Korea changed when the Japanese lifted the ban on martial arts in 1943 so it could fulfill military requirements during World War II. Judo and "Juken-jutsu" (bayonet art) began to be taught in 1941, and by 1943, Karate and kung-fu were officially introduced to Koreans. For the two years before the surrender of Japan, the martial arts enjoyed a new popularity in Korea. A select few still practiced Taekkyon, Subak, Kong-soo, and Hwa-soo but they did not share their expertise with the public. The actions of Korean martial artists in Korea in those days remains largely unknown. 

It was not until Korea's liberation in 1945 that its own fighting arts finally took root and began to flourish.

Near the end of WW II, Americans invaded Korea to push back the Japanese.  Japan finally surrendered unconditionally and, on August 15, 1945, Korea was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule.

After liberation from the Japanese, the Korean people vowed never to allow another government to control their country again. Masters who had studied martial arts in other countries returned to Korea and blended these styles with Taekkyon to form new styles as methods to protect not only individual Koreans but also the country itself.

After the war, most martial arts schools in Korea were using the name karate and were using Japanese terminology to describe techniques. They used Japanese patterns and training methods. There were no techniques or terminology that resembled Taekkyon. This was a problem until after the Korean War when nationalistic and political motivations led to an effort to portray the martial arts that had developed in Korean as having ancient Korean origins.

At least four Japanese martial arts remained popular in Korea after liberation, albeit under their Koreanized names. Koreans continued to study Yudo (Judo), Komdo (Kendo), Yusul (Jujutsu), and Kongsudo (karate-do). The Korean Yudo Association was founded in October of 1945 by Mum-Suk Lee and Jin-Hee Han, and the Korean Komdo Association (K.K.A.) was organized in Seoul in 1948. The K.K.A. became affiliated with the Korean Amateur Sports Association on Nov. 20, 1953, and in the same year the Korean Yudo College was founded with Dr. Je-Hwang Lee as its first president. Both Yudo and Komdo remained virtually unchanged from their Japanese namesakes. On the other hand, the arts of Yusul and Kongsudo have changed greatly since Korean liberation. Yusul developed into Hapkido and all of its derivatives (Kuksul, Hwarang-do, etc.), while Kongsudo would eventually go through the greatest changes of all, developing into Tangsoodo and Taekwondo.

The various kwans ("schools") of Kongsudo retained much of the style of karate-do for many years, including the various kata or forms of Karate-do. Many Tangsoodo schools today still retain the forms of Karate-do. As late as 1965, Hong-Hi Choi was still teaching Shorin-ryu and Shorei-ryu forms (including Heian 1-5, Empi, Rohai, Bassai, Kusanku, Jion, Tekki 1-3, Hangetsu, and Jitte) along with his own forms, called the Ch'ang Hon set. In 1968, Sihak Henry Cho asserted that "Taekwondo is identical to Japanese karate." Cho also noted that "some of the Korean public still use the 'karate' pronunciation in conversation."

Syngman Rhee (1875-1965) was a very nationalistic Korean who went to the United States in 1904 and became the first Korean to obtain a Ph.D. from an American university. After returning to Korea, he found he could not work under the Japanese occupation, so he returned to the United States in 1912. Seven years later, he was elected in China as President of the Korean Provisional Government in exile and he held this position for the next twenty years. During WW II, he remained in the United States where he established his reputation with the Americans.

When the war ended, the United States made him the new President of the Republic of Korea. Rhee used strong-arm tactics to maintain his presidency in elections in 1948, 1952, 1956, and 1960. He maintained dictatorial control over all levels of government until his downfall shortly after his obvious rigging of the 1960 election. Student riots, with heavy casualties, resulted in a call from the National Assembly for Rhee's resignation. Rhee resigned on April 27, 1960 and went into exile in Hawaii, where he died five years later. He was replaced by constitutional liberalism in the Second Republic, but instability in the new democracy led to a military coup on May 16, 1961.

General Park Chung Hee, who was a general under Rhee (as was General Choi Hong Hi), dominated the military junta and ended military rule at the end of 1962 to become President of the Third Republic. He was re-elected in 1967 and 1971. In 1972, in the face of growing popular unrest, he dissolved the National Assembly and suspended the constitution. Park expanded the powers of the presidency and, at the end of 1972, he was directly elected President of the Fourth Republic. Despite great unrest in the Korean population, he was re-elected in December 1978. Less than a year later, he was assassinated by the head of his own Central Intelligence Agency. In eighteen years, Park laid the base for Korea's economic success through state planning, capitalist incentives, strict control, and the abrogation of labor rights. His assassination caused another military coup on December 13, 1979 resulting in the May 1980 domestic uprising in Kwangju.

Brutally put down, the Kwangju uprising resulted in Chun Doo Hwan assuming the presidency and beginning the Fifth Republic in October 1980. Chun lifted martial law the following January and was elected president a month later. For the next four years, he ran a repressive regime until he nominated his successor Roh Tae Woo, a former General of the 1979 coup. Pressure from human rights activists, the United States, and the coming 1988 Olympics led to an election in December 1987 that resulted in Roh being elected President again.

From World War II until the early 1960's, Taekwondo consisted mostly of Japanese terminology and techniques. This was a problem for those asserting that Taekwondo had it roots in Korean history. The next generation of instructors solved this quandary by developing a method of competition that was radically different from Japanese competition. This made Taekwondo unique and different than Japanese karate. These changes were opposed by first generation Taekwondo instructors, such as Choi Hong Hi. 

Preface - Introduction - Ancient Beginnings - Korean Geography - Ancient Korea - Three Kingdoms Era - Subak and Sonbae - Subak and Hwarang - Koryo Dynasty - Chosen Dynasty - Korea Divided - Korean War (1950-1953) - Modern Taekwondo - Early Masters - Taekwondo Development - International Groups - Road to Olympics - Sport Taekwondo - Traditional versus Sport - Taekwondo in the United States - Taekwondo Today - References